Drainage System | Chapter 3 NCERT Class 11 Notes

A drainage system refers to the way water flows through rivers, streams, and other water bodies. In nature, water collects from rain or melting snow and moves across the land, eventually draining into seas, lakes, or oceans. Rivers are the main part of a drainage system.

They carry water from higher areas, like mountains, to lower areas, like plains, and finally to the sea. The way these rivers and their tributaries are arranged on the land is called a drainage pattern.

There are different types of drainage patterns, like dendritic (tree-like) and trellis (grid-like). The drainage system helps in shaping the landscape, providing water for plants, animals, and human activities.

◾Don’t Miss: Explore All Topics on Indian Geography

Understanding Rivers and Their Flow

Rivers are an important part of nature. You might have seen water flowing in rivers, nalas, or channels, especially during the rainy season.

These channels help drain excess water and prevent flooding.

If these channels get blocked or are not properly defined, flooding becomes a common problem.

Rivers Near You

Do you have a river near your village or city?

• Have you ever visited it for boating or bathing?
• Is the river perennial (always has water) or ephemeral (has water only during the rainy season)?

Why Do Rivers Flow?

Water in rivers flows because of slopes. You might have studied about slopes in geography. The flow of water depends on the height of the land. Water moves from higher areas to lower areas.

Why Do Indian Rivers Flow Eastward?

• Himalayan Rivers in northern India and rivers originating from the Western Ghats in southern India mostly flow towards the east.
• These rivers discharge their water into the Bay of Bengal because of the natural slope of the land.
• The slope of the land determines the direction of water flow.

Fun Fact: Rivers Always Flow in One Direction

Do you know that rivers flow in a single direction? This is because water naturally follows the slope of the land.

Rivers and Drainage Systems

Rivers collect and drain water from specific areas, forming what we call a ‘catchment area’. The system of a river and its tributaries draining a larger area is known as a drainage basin. Here are some important terms and concepts to understand:

Key Terms

• Catchment Area: The area from which a river collects water.

• Drainage Basin: The area drained by a river and its tributaries.

• Watershed: A boundary line separating two drainage basins. Small water bodies often have watersheds, while larger systems have river basins.

• River Basin vs. Watershed:
  • Watershed: Smaller area.
  • River Basin: Larger area, covering major river systems.

Indian Drainage System

India’s rivers are grouped based on their discharge orientation and watershed size:

Based on Discharge Orientation

Bay of Bengal Drainage

• Covers 77% of the drainage area.
• Includes rivers like the Ganga, Brahmaputra, Mahanadi, Krishna, etc.
• Water flows into the Bay of Bengal.

Arabian Sea Drainage

• Covers 23% of the drainage area.
• Includes rivers like the Indus, Narmada, Tapi, Mahi, and Periyar.
• Water flows into the Arabian Sea.
• The Delhi Ridge, Aravalis, and Sahyadris act as divides between these drainage systems.

Based on Watershed Size

• Major River Basins (Catchment area > 20,000 sq. km):
  • Examples: Ganga, Brahmaputra, Krishna, Narmada, Tapi, Barak, etc.

• Medium River Basins (Catchment area 2,000-20,000 sq. km):
  • Examples: Kalindi, Periyar, Meghna, etc.

• Minor River Basins (Catchment area < 2,000 sq. km):
  • Found in areas of low rainfall, with smaller rivers.

Special Cases in Indian Rivers

• Himalayan Rivers: Begin in the Himalayas and flow towards either the Bay of Bengal or the Arabian Sea.

• Peninsular Rivers: Begin in the Western Ghats and mostly flow into the Bay of Bengal.

• Exceptions:
  • Narmada and Tapi: Flow westward into the Arabian Sea, unlike most Peninsular rivers.
  • Small rivers along the Konkan and Malabar coasts also flow into the Arabian Sea.

Classification Based on Origin and Characteristics

• Himalayan Drainage:
  • Rivers like Ganga, Brahmaputra, and Indus.

• Peninsular Drainage:
  • Rivers like Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery, and Mahanadi.
  • Includes older rivers like Chambal, Betwa, and Son.

Drainage Systems of India

India’s drainage system consists of numerous small and large rivers, shaped by the evolution of three major physiographic units (Himalayas, plains, and peninsular region) and precipitation patterns.

The Himalayan Drainage System

The Himalayan drainage system has developed over a long geological history. It includes major river basins like:

• Ganga
• Indus
• Brahmaputra

These rivers are perennial, meaning they have water throughout the year because they are fed by both melting snow and rainfall.

Key Features of Himalayan Rivers

• Mountainous Course:
  • Erosional Landforms: Deep gorges, V-shaped valleys, rapids, and waterfalls are common.
  • Rivers cut through mountains as they flow.

• Plains Course:
  • Depositional Features:
    • Flat valleys
    • Ox-bow lakes
    • Floodplains
    • Braided channels
    • Deltas near the river mouth
  • Rivers here meander (form bends) and frequently change their course.

Questions to Explore

1. Why does Kosi bring so many sediments?
   • Reason: Its upper reaches in the Himalayas experience rapid erosion due to steep slopes and heavy rainfall.
2. Does the river discharge remain constant?
   • No, it fluctuates based on the season.
   • Maximum water is received during the monsoon season.
3. What are the effects of flooding?
   • Positive Effects:
     • Enriches soil fertility through sediment deposits.
     • Recharges groundwater.
   • Negative Effects:
     • Destruction of homes and crops.
     • Displacement of people.
     • Loss of life and property.

Evolution of the Himalayan Drainage

The Himalayan rivers have a long and complex evolutionary history. Although there are differing opinions, geologists generally agree on certain key aspects.

The Indo-Brahma River Theory

• Ancient River: A mighty river called Shiwalik or Indo-Brahma once flowed across the entire Himalayan region.

• Extent: It stretched from Assam to Punjab, eventually discharging into the Gulf of Sind near lower Punjab.

• Timeframe: This river existed during the Miocene Period, about 5-24 million years ago.

• Evidence:
  • Continuity of the Shiwalik Hills.
  • Lacustrine (lake-origin) deposits and alluvial formations like sand, silt, clay, boulders, and conglomerates.

Dismemberment of the Indo-Brahma River

Over time, the Indo-Brahma River split into three major drainage systems due to geological changes:

• Indus System:
  • Includes the Indus River and its five major tributaries.
  • Located in the western part.

• Ganga System:
  • Includes the Ganga River and its Himalayan tributaries.
  • Located in the central part.

• Brahmaputra System:
  • Includes the Brahmaputra River and its tributaries.
  • Found in the eastern part.

Causes of the Dismemberment

Pleistocene Upheaval:

• Occurred during the Pleistocene period (around 2.58 million to 11,700 years ago).
• The Uplift of the Potwar Plateau (Delhi Ridge) created a water divide between the Indus and Ganga systems.

Malda Gap:

• The Malda gap area, located between the Rajmahal Hills and the Meghalaya Plateau, was downthrusted during the mid-Pleistocene period.

• This caused the Ganga and Brahmaputra systems to shift their flow towards the Bay of Bengal.

The River Systems of the Himalayan Drainage

The Himalayan drainage system includes several major river systems. Below is an overview of some of the Major River Systems,

The Indus River System

Overview

• Basin Area: 11,65,000 sq. km (India: 321,289 sq. km).
• Total Length: 2,880 km (India: 1,114 km).
• Origin: From a glacier near Bokhar Chu (31°15′ N, 81°40′ E) in the Kailash Mountain Range, Tibet, at an altitude of 4,164 m.
• Known as Singi Khamban or “Lion’s Mouth” in Tibet.

Course

• Initial Flow:
  • Flows northwest between Ladakh and Zaskar ranges.
  • Passes through Ladakh and Baltistan, forming a spectacular gorge near Gilgit.
  • Enters Pakistan near Chilas in Dardistan (a region in northern Pakistan).

• Tributaries:
  • Himalayan Tributaries: Shyok, Gilgit, Zaskar, Hunza, Nubra, Shigar, Gasting, and Dras.
  • Right Bank Tributaries: Kabul, Khurram, Tochi, Gomal, Viboa, and Sangar (originate in the Sulaiman Ranges).

• Panjnad Confluence:
  • Receives Panjnad near Mithankot, a collective name for five Punjab rivers:
    • Satluj, Beas, Ravi, Chenab, and Jhelum.

• Final Course:
  • Discharges into the Arabian Sea, east of Karachi.

Major Tributaries

• Jhelum River:
  • Source: Spring at Verinag in the Pir Panjal Range, Kashmir.
  • Course: Flows through Srinagar, drains into Wular Lake, and enters Pakistan through a gorge.
  • Confluence: Joins Chenab near Jhang, Pakistan.

• Chenab River:
  • Source: Formed by Chandra and Bhaga streams at Tandi, Himachal Pradesh.
  • Also known as Chandrabhaga.
  • Length: 1,180 km.

• Ravi River:
  • Source: Near Rohtang Pass, Kullu Hills, Himachal Pradesh.
  • Course: Flows through Chamba Valley, and joins Chenab near Sarai Sidhu, Pakistan.

• Beas River:
  • Source: Beas Kund, near Rohtang Pass, at an elevation of 4,000 m.
  • Course: Flows through Kullu Valley, forms gorges in Dhauladhar Range, and meets Satluj near Harike.

• Satluj River:
  • Source: Raksas Tal, near Mansarovar, Tibet, at an altitude of 4,555 m.
  • Known as Langchen Khambab in Tibet.
  • Course: Flows parallel to the Indus for 400 km, enters India through Shipki La, forms a gorge at Rupar, and meets the Punjab plains.
  • Importance: Feeds the Bhakra Nangal Canal System.

The Ganga River System

The Ganga River holds immense cultural, religious, and geographical significance in India. It is the largest river system in the country, originating from the Gangotri Glacier and supporting millions of people and ecosystems.

Overview

• Source: Gangotri Glacier, near Gaumukh (3,900 m) in Uttarkashi district, Uttarakhand.
• Initial Name: Known as Bhagirathi at its source.
• Length: 2,525 km (India: 2,510 km).

• States Covered:
  • Uttarakhand: 110 km
  • Uttar Pradesh: 1,450 km
  • Bihar: 445 km
  • West Bengal: 520 km

• Basin Area: 8.6 lakh sq. km in India.

Course

• Himalayan Origin:
  • The Bhagirathi cuts through the Central and Lesser Himalayas via narrow gorges.
  • At Devprayag, it meets the Alaknanda River, and the combined stream is called the Ganga.

• Tributaries of Alaknanda:
  • Dhauli Ganga and Vishnu Ganga: Meet at Joshimath (Vishnu Prayag).
  • Pindar River: Joins at Karna Prayag.
  • Mandakini (Kali Ganga): Meets at Rudra Prayag.

• Entry into Plains:
  • The river enters the plains at Haridwar, flowing south, southeast, and east.

• Distributaries:
  • Splits into two distributaries:
    • Bhagirathi
    • Padma (flows into Bangladesh).

• Termination:
  • Empties into the Bay of Bengal near Sagar Island.

Tributaries

• Right Bank Tributaries:
  • Son River

• Left Bank Tributaries:
  • Ramganga
  • Gomati
  • Ghaghara
  • Gandak
  • Kosi
  • Mahananda

Significance

• Cultural: Revered as a holy river, worshipped across India.
• Economic: Provides water for agriculture, industries, and domestic use.
• Geographical: Supports diverse ecosystems and wildlife.

The Ganga River System not only serves as a lifeline for millions but also symbolizes India’s spiritual heritage.

The Yamuna River

The Yamuna, the westernmost and longest tributary of the Ganga, originates from the Yamunotri Glacier on the western slopes of the Banderpunch Range (6,316 m) in Uttarakhand. It meets the Ganga at Prayag (Allahabad).

Key Features

• Source: Yamunotri Glacier, Uttarakhand.
• Confluence Point: Prayag (Allahabad), Uttar Pradesh.
• Major Use: Its water feeds the Western Yamuna Canal, Eastern Yamuna Canal, and the Agra Canal, supporting irrigation.

Tributaries

• Right Bank Tributaries (Peninsular Plateau Origin):
  • Chambal River
  • Sind River
  • Betwa River
  • Ken River

• Left Bank Tributaries:
  • Hindan
  • Rind
  • Sengar
  • Varuna

States Drained by the Yamuna River

• Uttarakhand:
  • Originates from the Yamunotri Glacier.

• Himachal Pradesh:
  • Flows through regions near the foothills of the Himalayas.

• Haryana:
  • Forms part of the state’s irrigation system through canals.

• Delhi:
  • Serves as a major source of water for the capital city.

• Uttar Pradesh:
  • Joins the Ganga at Prayag; provides irrigation in the plains.

• Rajasthan:
  • Tributaries like Chambal and Sind drain parts of the state.

The Yamuna River is integral to agriculture, water supply, and cultural heritage across these states.

The Chambal River

The Chambal River is a significant right-bank tributary of the Yamuna, known for its unique badland topography and historical significance.

Key Features

• Source: Near Mhow in the Malwa Plateau, Madhya Pradesh.

• Flow Path:
  • Flows northwards through the Malwa Plateau.
  • Passes through a gorge upstream of Kota in Rajasthan, where the Gandhisagar Dam is located.
  • Traverses Bundi, Sawai Madhopur, and Dholpur in Rajasthan.

• Confluence: Joins the Yamuna River.
• Notable Geographical Feature:
  • Chambal Ravines: The river is famous for its badland topography, characterized by deep gullies and eroded terrain.

Importance

• Irrigation and Hydropower:
  • The Gandhisagar Dam and other projects support irrigation and power generation.

• Ecological Significance:
  • The Chambal River hosts a biodiverse ecosystem, including the critically endangered gharial (a type of crocodile) and Gangetic dolphins.

• Cultural and Historical Value:
  • The ravines have been associated with folklore and historical events.

The Chambal River plays a crucial role in the geography, agriculture, and biodiversity of the regions it flows through.

The Gandak River

The Gandak River is an important tributary of the Ganga, flowing through both Nepal and India. It plays a significant role in the drainage system of the region.

Key Features

• Source: The Gandak has its origin in the Nepal Himalayas, specifically between Dhaulagiri and Mount Everest.
• Formation: It is formed by the confluence of two streams:
  • Kaligandak
  • Trishulganga
• Flow Path:
  • Drains the central part of Nepal.
  • Enters the Ganga Plain in Champaran district of Bihar, India.
• Confluence: The Gandak finally joins the Ganga at Sonpur, near Patna in Bihar.

Importance

• Geographical Significance:
  • The Gandak is a major river in the northern part of India and Nepal, contributing to the water system of the Ganga.

• Irrigation and Agriculture:
  • The river is vital for irrigation in the areas of Bihar, especially around the Champaran region.

• Cultural Significance:
  • Like many rivers in India, the Gandak holds cultural and religious importance for the communities along its banks.

The Gandak River is a vital waterway, contributing to both the ecology and economy of the region through its waters and fertile plains.

The Ghaghara River

The Ghaghara River is a significant tributary of the Ganga, flowing through the northern regions of India and Nepal. It has a crucial role in the Himalayan drainage system.

Key Features

• Source:
  • The Ghaghara originates from the Mapchachungo Glacier located in the Tibetan Plateau.
• Tributaries:
  • It collects waters from several tributaries, including:
    • Tila
    • Seti
    • Beri
• Mountain Course:
  • As the Ghaghara flows out of the mountains, it cuts a deep gorge at Shishapani.
• Confluence with Sarda:
  • Before entering the plains, the Sarda River (also known as Kali or Kali Ganga) joins the Ghaghara.
• Joining the Ganga:
  • The Ghaghara finally meets the Ganga at Chhapra, in Bihar, India.

Importance

• Geographical Significance:
  • The Ghaghara is an important river in the northern Indian subcontinent, especially in the Ganga Basin.

• Irrigation and Agriculture:
  • The river provides water for agriculture in the regions of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, playing a key role in supporting farming communities.

• Cultural Significance:
  • Like many major rivers in India, the Ghaghara holds cultural importance to the communities along its banks.

The Brahmaputra System

Origin

• The Brahmaputra originates from the Chemayungdung Glacier in the Kailash Range near Mansarovar Lake in Tibet.
• In Tibet, it is known as the Tsangpo, which means “the purifier.”

Course in Tibet

• The river travels eastward for nearly 1,200 km through a dry and flat region in southern Tibet.
• It is joined by the Rango Tsangpo, a major right bank tributary.
• As it moves through Namcha Barwa (7,755 m), it carves out a deep gorge, becoming a turbulent and dynamic river.

Entry into India

• The river enters India west of Sadiya in Arunachal Pradesh, where it is known as the Siang or Dihang.

Tributaries

• Major left-bank tributaries of the Brahmaputra include:
  • Dibang (Sikang)
  • Lohit

• Important right-bank tributaries include:
  • Subansiri (antecedent river, originates in Tibet and is an antecedent river.)
  • Kameng
  • Manas
  • Sankosh

Journey through Assam

The Brahmaputra flows for 750 km through the Assam Valley, receiving numerous tributaries, including the Burhi Dihing and Dhansari on its left bank, and the Subansiri, Kameng, Manas, and Sankosh on its right bank.

Entry into Bangladesh

• The Brahmaputra enters Bangladesh near Dhubri and flows southward.
• In Bangladesh, the river is joined by the Tista River on its right bank and is known as the Jamuna.
• It finally merges with the Padma River before flowing into the Bay of Bengal.

Flooding and Erosion

The Brahmaputra is known for its frequent floods, channel shifting, and bank erosion due to the large tributaries that carry heavy amounts of sediment from the catchment area, where heavy rainfall occurs.

Key Features of the Brahmaputra River System:

• Origin: Chemayungdung Glacier, Kailash Range, Tibet.
• Tibet Name: Tsangpo, meaning “the purifier.”
• Entry into India: As Siang/Dihang in Arunachal Pradesh.
• Major Tributaries:
  • Left Bank: Dibang, Lohit, Burhi Dihing, Dhansari.
  • Right Bank: Subansiri, Kameng, Manas, Sankosh.
• Flooding: Known for its floods, channel shifting, and bank erosion due to large sediment loads.

Overview of Other Major River System

• The Kosi River
  • Source: The Kosi originates to the north of Mount Everest in Tibet, where its main stream, Arun, rises.
  • Course: The river crosses the Central Himalayas in Nepal and is joined by two main tributaries:
    • Son Kosi (from the west)
    • Tamur Kosi (from the east)
  • Formation of Sapt Kosi: After uniting with the Arun, it forms the Sapt Kosi, which is a prominent feature in the region.

• The Ramganga River
  • Source: The Ramganga rises in the Garhwal hills near Gairsain.
  • Course: The river changes direction to the southwest after crossing the Shiwalik Hills and enters the plains of Uttar Pradesh near Najibabad.
  • Confluence: It finally joins the Ganga near Kannauj.

• The Damodar River
  • Course: The Damodar occupies the eastern margins of the Chotanagpur Plateau, flowing through a rift valley.
  • Confluence: It joins the Hugli River.
  • Main Tributary: The Barakar is the main tributary of the Damodar.
  • Historical Significance: Once known as the “sorrow of Bengal” due to its tendency to flood, it has been tamed by the Damodar Valley Corporation, a multipurpose project designed to control flooding and provide irrigation and power.

• The Sarda (or Saryu) River
  • Source: The Sarda rises from the Milam Glacier in the Nepal Himalayas, where it is known as Goriganga.
  • Course: Along the Indo-Nepal border, it is called Kali or Chauk, where it eventually joins the Ghaghara River.

• The Mahananda River
  • Source: The Mahananda originates in the Darjiling Hills.
  • Course: It is the last left-bank tributary of the Ganga and joins the Ganga in West Bengal.

• The Son River
  • Source: The Son is a large south-bank tributary of the Ganga, originating from the Amarkantak Plateau.
  • Course: After forming a series of waterfalls at the edge of the plateau, it flows to Arrah, west of Patna, before joining the Ganga.

Peninsular Drainage System Overview

• Age: The Peninsular drainage system is older than the Himalayan drainage system, evident from its mature rivers, broad valleys, and shallow courses.

• Geographical Divide: The Western Ghats, running close to the western coast, act as the water divide, separating the rivers flowing towards the Bay of Bengal (eastward) and those flowing into the Arabian Sea (westward).

Major Rivers of the Peninsular Drainage System

• Flow Direction: Most rivers in the Peninsular region flow from west to east, except for the Narmada and Tapi, which flow westward into the Arabian Sea.

• Major Rivers:
  • Ganga System Tributaries: Rivers like Chambal, Sind, Betwa, Ken, and Son originate from the northern part of the Peninsular region and contribute to the Ganga River System.
  • Other Major River Systems:
    • Mahanadi
    • Godavari
    • Krishna
    • Kaveri

Characteristics of Peninsular Rivers

• Course: Peninsular rivers generally have a fixed course and are non-perennial in nature.

• Absence of Meanders: These rivers do not exhibit the winding curves (meanders) seen in other river systems.

• Exceptions: The Narmada and Tapi rivers are exceptions, as they flow through rift valleys, and their flow patterns differ from most other Peninsular rivers.

Evolution of Peninsular Drainage System

The present drainage system of Peninsular India has evolved through three major geological events that took place in the distant past. These events shaped the course and characteristics of the rivers in the region:

• Subsidence of the Western Flank:
  • During the early Tertiary period, the western flank of the Peninsular Plateau sank, submerging it below the sea.
  • This subsidence disturbed the symmetrical plan of rivers, altering the flow on either side of the original watershed.

• Upheaval of the Himalayas:
  • The upheaval of the Himalayas caused the northern flank of the Peninsular block to undergo subsidence and trough faulting.
  • Rivers like the Narmada and Tapi flow through these trough faults, filling the cracks with their detritus materials.
  • As a result, these rivers lack alluvial and deltaic deposits compared to other rivers.

• Tilting of the Peninsular Block:
  • The Peninsular block experienced a slight tilting from the northwest to the southeast.
  • This tilt gave the entire drainage system a new orientation, directing it towards the Bay of Bengal.

River Systems of the Peninsular Drainage

The Peninsular drainage system consists of several major rivers that flow primarily towards the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. Below is a brief account of the major river systems in the region:

Mahanadi

• Origin: Sihawa, Raipur district (Chhattisgarh)
• Length: 851 km
• Catchment Area: 1.42 lakh sq. km
• Flow: Through Odisha to the Bay of Bengal
• Notable: 53% of the basin lies in Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh, while 47% lies in Odisha. It supports some navigation in its lower course.

Godavari (Dakshin Ganga):

• Origin: Nasik district (Maharashtra)
• Length: 1,465 km
• Catchment Area: 3.13 lakh sq. km
• Flow: Through Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, and then into the Bay of Bengal.
• Notable: The Godavari is the largest Peninsular river. It has heavy flooding in its lower reaches and forms a delta near Rajahmundry. The Penganga, Indravati, Pranhita, and Manjra are its major tributaries.

Krishna

• Origin: Mahabaleshwar (Sahyadri)
• Length: 1,401 km
• Catchment Area: 29% in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, 44% in Karnataka, and 27% in Maharashtra.
• Notable: The second-largest east-flowing Peninsular river, with major tributaries like the Koyna, Tungbhadra, and Bhima.

Kaveri

• Origin: Brahmagiri hills (Kogadu district, Karnataka)
• Length: 800 km
• Catchment Area: 81,155 sq. km
• Notable: Known for year-round water flow due to the combined influence of the southwest and northeast monsoons. The river drains parts of Kerala, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu, with tributaries like the Kabini, Bhavani, and Amravati.

Narmada

• Origin: Amarkantak plateau (Madhya Pradesh)
• Length: 1,312 km
• Catchment Area: 98,796 sq. km
• Flow: The river flows westward through a rift valley between the Satpura and Vindhya ranges, forming a gorge at Jabalpur and flowing into the Arabian Sea near Bharuch.
• Notable: The Sardar Sarovar Project is constructed on this river, which also forms a 27 km long estuary at its mouth.

Tapi

• Origin: Multai, Betul district (Madhya Pradesh)
• Length: 724 km
• Catchment Area: 65,145 sq. km
• Flow: Flows westward through Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Gujarat, draining into the Arabian Sea.
• Notable: The Tapi is another significant westward-flowing river in India.

Luni

• Origin: Near Pushkar (Rajasthan)
• Notable: The largest river system in Rajasthan, flowing westwards and draining into the Rann of Kutch.
• Flow: The river is ephemeral, meaning it has water only during certain periods.

Source: NCERT CLASS-11 Drainage System

More Related Posts on Indian Geography

Luni River: The Lifeline of the Thar Desert – History, Course, and Challenges

3 Major Cropping Seasons in India with Examples

Beas River System: Complete Indian Geography Notes

Overview of the Indian River System

Saddle Peak: Key Points about the Highest Peak of Andaman & Nicobar Islands

India’s First Oil Refinery: The Legacy of Digboi